Europe, a vast peninsula often considered a continent in its own right due to its extensive area, history, and traditions, covers approximately 2% of the Earth’s total surface and 6.8% of the world’s land area. This makes it the second smallest continent after Oceania. It is part of the larger Eurasian landmass, situated entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and predominantly in the Eastern Hemisphere. Europe shares its landmass with Africa and Asia, bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east. The latter is generally separated from Europe by the Ural Mountains, the Caspian Sea, the Greater Caucasus, the Black Sea, and the Turkish Straits. European culture is the origin of Western civilization, tracing its roots back to ancient Greece and Rome, and evolved through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. This period of exploration by Spain and Portugal, along with a focus on arts and sciences, contributed significantly to the transition to the modern era. Europe played a dominant role in global affairs from the 16th to the 20th centuries, colonizing the Americas, nearly all of Africa, Oceania, and most of Asia.
The term “Europe” as a geographic entity has been in use since the mid-19th century. Europe is surrounded by large bodies of water to the north, west, and south, and generally includes islands with the closest continental land. Consequently, Iceland is considered part of Europe, whereas Greenland, despite its political affiliation with Denmark, is typically assigned to North America. There are exceptions based on social, political, and cultural differences: Cyprus, though geographically closer to Anatolia (Asia Minor), is considered part of Europe politically and is a member of the European Union. Malta, a North African island for centuries, is also regarded as part of Europe today.
Europe’s total area is approximately 10.2 million square kilometers. Russia is the largest country by area, followed by Ukraine, France, and Spain. The smallest countries in Europe include Vatican City, located within Italy, followed by Monaco, San Marino, and Liechtenstein.
The continent is divided into seven geographic regions: Northern Europe, including Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Denmark; the British Isles, comprising the United Kingdom and Ireland; Western Europe, with France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Monaco; Southern Europe, including Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Italy, Malta, San Marino, and Vatican City; Central Europe, featuring Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary; Southeastern Europe, with Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, North Macedonia, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, and the European part of Turkey; and Eastern Europe, encompassing Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, and the European part of Russia, with Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan included according to agreements.
In 1949, the Council of Europe was established to unify the continent for common goals and to prevent future wars. Increased European integration led to the formation of the European Union (EU), a political entity situated between a confederation and a federation. Although it began in Western Europe, it expanded eastward after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. The EU adopted a common currency, the euro, which is widely used among Europeans. Additionally, the Schengen Area, within the EU, abolishes border controls and immigration restrictions between most member states and some non-member states.
Geography of Europe
Europe constitutes the western fifth of the Eurasian landmass and has the highest ratio of coastline to land area compared to any other continent. Its maritime boundaries include the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, and the Caspian Sea to the south. Europe’s terrain exhibits significant variation: southern regions are more mountainous, while moving northward, the landscape transitions from the high Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Carpathians to broad, low-lying plains in the north. These expansive lowlands are known as the Great European Plain, with the North German Plain at its heart.
In terms of climate, Europe is primarily situated in temperate zones. Western regions experience milder climates compared to other areas at the same latitude due to the Gulf Stream, which acts as a central heating system for Europe by making the climate warmer and wetter. The Gulf Stream not only brings warm water to Europe’s shores but also warms the prevailing westerly winds from the Atlantic Ocean. Consequently, the average annual temperature is around 16°C, compared to 13°C in New York City, which is on the same latitude. The northern parts of Europe are colder than the south, and the east is colder than the west.
Human impact has significantly affected the distribution of animals in Europe. Large mammals and top predators have been heavily hunted, leading to their extinction in many areas. Deforestation and hunting have driven species such as bears and wolves to remote and inaccessible regions, with bear habitats limited to mountainous areas in Scandinavia and Russia. Marine life, including fish, octopuses, dolphins, and whales, is also an important part of Europe’s fauna, along with a rich variety of mammals and birds.
History of Europe
The story of Europe begins in prehistory, with the emergence of early humans around 40,000 years ago. The earliest inhabitants lived during the Paleolithic era, gathering in small communities and subsisting through hunting and gathering. With the transition to the Neolithic era around 9,000 years ago, agriculture, crop production, and animal husbandry began, leading to the establishment of village communities. As humans moved from east to west across Eurasia, knowledge of tools and life methods evolved, improving survival through metal axes and arrowheads. Civilizations began to emerge and flourish.
In the 8th century BC, Greece emerged from the Dark Ages, and classical Greek culture had a profound influence on the Roman Empire, which spread this culture across much of the Mediterranean and Northern Europe. This culture became the foundation of modern Western civilization. Among the great civilizations that arose in Europe, the Roman Empire had the most lasting impact, shaping the continent profoundly in architecture, language, law, and religion. After its fall, the Eastern Roman Empire (285-1450), known as the Byzantine Empire, inherited its legacy. In Western Europe, small kingdoms emerged, and the geography of Europe began to change, with the Frankish Kingdom evolving into France and parts of it into the Holy Roman Empire, which later became modern Germany.
The Anglo-Saxons soon crossed the English Channel to South Britain, establishing a series of kingdoms that eventually formed England by 927 AD. After 100 years, the kingdoms of Poland and Hungary emerged, and the Viking Age in Northern Europe and Scandinavia lasted from the late 8th century to the mid-13th century. The Vikings, driven by a quest for land, explored Europe for trade and wealth, reaching Iceland, Greenland, Newfoundland, and Anatolia.
By the late 15th century, major powers such as England, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain emerged, playing dominant roles in global affairs from the 15th to the mid-20th centuries. The European colonial era saw these powers establish colonies in Asia, Africa, and the Americas. As colonized peoples sought independence worldwide, European colonialism began to wane, particularly with the British Empire losing its grip in Africa, India, and much of the Middle East.
During World War I and World War II, Europe suffered greatly, with much of the conflict occurring on its soil. The immense costs of both wars significantly diminished Western Europe’s global dominance. Some Eastern European countries have not fully recovered, but after the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Europe underwent positive changes. European cultures and factions began to merge, leading to the formation of the Council of Europe and the flourishing of the European Union in Western Europe, making the continent a major economic and political center with considerable global influence.
Demographics
Europe’s population is estimated at 742 million, slightly over nine percent of the world’s total. A century ago, Europe’s population was close to a quarter of the global total. The continent has a relatively high population density, ranking second after Asia. Most European countries are experiencing declining fertility rates, meaning each new generation is smaller than the previous one. Monaco is the most densely populated country in Europe, while Russia has the largest population (145.6 million), followed by Turkey (84.7 million), Germany (84.1 million), and France (67.9 million). The least populated countries are Vatican City (800 people), San Marino (33,800 people), Monaco (39,100 people), and Liechtenstein (39,300 people).
Historically, religion has had a significant impact on European art, culture, philosophy, and law. Christianity is the largest religion on the continent, comprising 76.2% of the population, including Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and various Protestant denominations. Europe has been the center and cradle of Christian civilization, playing a prominent role in shaping Western civilization since at least the 4th century, leading in philosophy, art, and science. By 2012, Europe had the largest Christian population globally. Islam follows with 4.9%, primarily concentrated in the Balkans (Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina) and transcontinental countries on the borders of Europe and Asia (Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Turkey). Other minority religions include Judaism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Today, the continent has become relatively secular, with a growing number of non-religious and atheist individuals constituting about 18.3% of the population.
Europe is home to about 225 native languages, primarily within three Indo-European language families: Romance languages, derived from Latin, spoken in Western and Southern Europe, Switzerland, Romania, and Moldova; Germanic languages, originating from the southern Scandinavian countries, spoken in Western, Northern, and Central Europe, Gibraltar, and Malta; and Slavic languages, spoken mainly in Southern, Central, and Eastern Europe.
Russian is the most widely spoken language in Europe, with around 120 million speakers, followed by German with 100 million speakers, French with 80 million speakers, English with 70 million speakers, and Turkish with 70 million speakers.
