South America is the fourth largest continent globally, following Asia, Africa, and North America. It covers about 3.5% of the Earth’s total surface and approximately 12% of the world’s land area. Positioned entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, it is bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the west, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and North America and the Caribbean to the northwest. The continent is home to 12 countries and is the fifth most populous continent. Brazil alone accounts for half of the continent’s population and GDP, making it the most significant and influential country in the region.
South America boasts incredible biological diversity, home to the vast Amazon Rainforest and the Amazon River. It also features the highest waterfall in the world, Angel Falls, the longest mountain range, the Andes, and the driest desert, the Atacama. Due to its colonial history, the majority of its population speaks Spanish or Portuguese, and its societies have been influenced by Western traditions. Compared to other inhabited continents, South America is relatively peaceful, having experienced minimal wars and conflicts throughout the 20th century.
The Isthmus of Panama separates the Americas, with the Darién Mountains often considered the natural divide. Sometimes, the Panama Canal is viewed as the boundary between the continents. Some classifications view South America as a subcontinent, encompassing 12 countries: Brazil, Argentina, Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana, Chile, Uruguay, and Paraguay, as well as several territories like the Falkland Islands, French Guiana, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.
Area and Borders
South America covers an area of about 17.8 million square kilometers. Brazil is the largest country by area, covering 47.3% of the continent. It shares borders with nearly every country in South America except Ecuador and Chile, followed by Argentina, Peru, and Colombia. The smallest countries are Suriname, Uruguay, Guyana, and Ecuador.
Trade Agreements and Organizations
Several trade agreements exist within South America, with Mercosur being the most notable. Founded by the Treaty of Asunción in 1991 and later amended by the Treaty of Ouro Preto in 1994, Mercosur aims to promote free trade among its members: Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Bolivia, Chile, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, and Suriname are associated members. The continent also hosts significant organizations like the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR), headquartered in Quito, Ecuador, and the Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America (ALBA), which seeks social, political, and economic integration of Latin American and Caribbean countries. Additionally, some South American countries are part of the Pacific Alliance, the Organization of American States (OAS), the Andean Community, and the Latin American and Caribbean Group (CELAC).
Geographical Features
South America comprises the southernmost part of the landmass generally known as the Western Hemisphere or the Americas. It has been connected to North America only recently, with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama about 3 million years ago. Geologically, Panama is part of South America, but geopolitically, it is considered part of North America.
The continent features the Andes, a seismically active mountain range stretching over 7,000 kilometers through Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, Chile, and Argentina, with its highest peak, Aconcagua, reaching nearly 7,000 meters. The Andes run along the western edge of the continent, while the eastern lands are predominantly tropical rainforests. The vast Amazon Basin flows from west to east through northern South America. Unique geographical phenomena include the world’s highest waterfall, Angel Falls in Venezuela, the driest desert, the Atacama Desert in Chile, and the largest rainforest, the Amazon Rainforest. The continent also has the highest railway in Peru, the highest capital, La Paz in Bolivia, and the highest navigable lake, Lake Titicaca. The southernmost town in the world, Puerto Toro, is located in Chile.
Climate and Natural Resources
South America features a range of climates from tropical to tundra. In the northern part of the continent near Colombia and Venezuela, the weather is generally humid, similar to areas near the equator, including the Amazon Rainforest. Trade winds regulate temperatures in the northeast, making Suriname, French Guiana, and Guyana cooler than their western neighbors. In northern Argentina and Paraguay, rainfall is sporadic, and temperatures tend to rise. The western coast, especially Chile, is dry and hot in summer with snowfall in the mountains during winter. The southernmost parts of Argentina experience polar and subpolar climates. Generally, temperatures decrease as one travels southward in South America.
The continent is rich in natural resources, including gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and oil. These resources have brought significant income, particularly during times of war or rapid economic growth. However, reliance on single export commodities often hinders diversified economic development and can lead to economic instability and political unrest. South America is also home to fascinating wildlife, including llamas, anacondas, piranhas, and jaguars.
Historical Overview
It is believed that South America was first populated by people crossing the Bering Strait, now the Bering Strait. However, some archaeological discoveries challenge this theory, leading to an alternative view that Native Americans originated in Siberia. The earliest evidence of agricultural practices in South America dates back to around 6500 BCE, with the cultivation of potatoes, peppers, and beans in the Amazon Basin. Pottery evidence suggests that cassava, a staple food today, was grown as early as 2000 BCE. Agricultural communities settled throughout the Andes and surrounding areas, with fishing becoming widespread along the coast, establishing fish as a primary food source. Irrigation systems developed during this time supported the rise of agricultural societies and permanent settlements in South America.
The oldest known civilization in South America emerged in the Norte Chico region on the central coast of Peru. The Chavín civilization existed from 900 to 600 BCE in what is now Peru, developing trade networks and advancing agriculture. The Inca civilization dominated the Andes from 1438 to 1533, known for its highly developed culture, sophisticated stonework in mountainous terrain, and terrace farming. Despite these achievements, the Incas never discovered the wheel, and there is no evidence of a written language. The Muisca civilization, located in present-day Colombia, established a confederation of various clans with a free trade network.
Other significant pre-Columbian cultures include Valdivia (Ecuador), Moche (100 BCE – 700 CE on the northern coast of Peru), Paracas-Nazca (400 BCE – 800 CE in Peru), the Wari or Huari Empire (600 CE – 1200 CE in central and northern Peru), the Chimu Empire (1300 CE – 1470 CE on the northern coast of Peru), and the Chachapoyas and Aymara kingdoms (1000 CE – 1450 CE in Bolivia and southern Peru).
In 1494, the great maritime powers Portugal and Spain signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, agreeing that all lands outside Europe would be an exclusive dual monopoly between the two countries. The treaty established an imaginary line along the north-south meridian to delineate their spheres of influence. Beginning in the 1530s, South America was subjected to exploitation by foreign invaders, first by Spain and later by Portugal. These colonial powers claimed the land and resources, dividing them into colonies. Due to European diseases (such as smallpox, influenza, measles, and typhus) to which the indigenous populations had no immunity, and forced labor systems in agriculture and mining, the native population declined significantly. African slaves, who developed immunity to these diseases, were brought in to replace them.
Alongside economic exploitation, the Spanish were committed to converting indigenous peoples to Christianity and quickly sought to eradicate any local cultural practices that impeded this goal. Initial attempts at conversion were only partially successful, as indigenous groups often blended Catholicism with traditional polytheistic beliefs. The Spanish imposed their language, and over time, mestizo communities emerged, primarily in the Andes, descended from indigenous mothers and Spanish fathers. Mestizos and indigenous people were often forced to pay extraordinary taxes to the Spanish government and were harshly punished for disobeying laws. Many local artworks, including gold and silver artifacts, were melted down by Spanish explorers before being shipped to Spain or Portugal.
Spanish colonies gained independence between 1804 and 1824 in the South American Wars of Independence, led by Simón Bolívar from Venezuela and José de San Martín from Argentina. Bolívar led a large army south, while San Martín led an army across the Andes, and the two forces eventually met in Guayaquil, Ecuador, where they besieged and forced the Spanish royal army to surrender. In Brazil, Dom Pedro I, the son of Portuguese King Dom João VI, declared independence in 1822 and became Brazil’s first emperor. This was peacefully accepted by the Portuguese crown. Despite Bolívar’s efforts to politically unify the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent, they quickly became independent of each other, leading to further conflicts such as the Triple Alliance War and the Pacific War. A few countries did not gain independence until the 20th century, with Guyana gaining independence from the United Kingdom in 1966 and Suriname from Dutch control in 1975. French Guiana remains a part of France.
In the mid-20th century, South America, like many other countries, became a battleground during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. Some governments in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay were overthrown or displaced by military dictatorships aligned with the United States in the 1960s and 1970s. To suppress dissent, these regimes conducted violent repression, including “disappearances” and torture of political activists and suspected communists. Though some countries have transitioned to democracy, economic challenges persist. The continent has faced various issues, such as corruption and inequality, impacting social and economic stability.
Economy and Resources
South America’s economy has historically been driven by its abundant natural resources, including minerals, oil, and agricultural products. The continent is a major exporter of commodities like soybeans, coffee, and copper. However, reliance on a few key resources has made some countries vulnerable to global market fluctuations and has led to economic instability in some cases.
In recent decades, there has been a focus on diversifying economies and improving infrastructure, though challenges remain. Countries like Brazil and Chile have made significant strides in industrialization and technological development, while others continue to rely heavily on agriculture and raw material exports. Economic integration efforts, such as trade agreements and regional organizations, aim to enhance cooperation and reduce trade barriers within the continent.
Demographics
The population of South America is estimated at 434.3 million, representing 5.53% of the world’s total population of 7.1 billion. This places it fifth in terms of population size, following Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America. Brazil is the most populous country in South America, with 216.5 million people, followed by Colombia (52.7 million), Argentina (46.2 million), and Peru (34.3 million). The least populous countries are Suriname (600,000), Guyana (795,600), Uruguay (3.5 million), and Paraguay (7.3 million). It is estimated that about 80% of the population lives in urban areas, with Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, and Peru being among the most urbanized countries.
South America is predominantly Christian, but nearly half of the continent’s population identifies as atheist. Christian populations are concentrated in Paraguay (96%), Ecuador (93%), Bolivia (93%), and Venezuela (91%). The countries with the highest proportions of non-religious individuals are Uruguay (51%), Chile (30%), and Colombia (22%). Other minority religions in South America include Judaism, Buddhism, Islam, Hinduism, Baha’i, and Shinto. Each country on the continent maintains a separation of church and state.
Regarding languages, South America is multilingual. The most widely spoken languages are Portuguese in Brazil, followed by Spanish in Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, Chile, Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, and Venezuela. French is spoken in French Guiana, Dutch in Suriname, and English in Guyana. Additionally, many indigenous languages are spoken across the continent, with Quechua being the most common, followed by Guarani and Aymara. Quechua is prevalent in northern countries like Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia, while Guarani is often spoken in Argentina and Bolivia, among other languages.
Culture and Society
South America is known for its rich cultural diversity, shaped by a blend of indigenous, European, African, and Asian influences. The continent’s cultural heritage is expressed through its languages, art, music, dance, and cuisine. Spanish and Portuguese are the primary languages, but indigenous languages such as Quechua, Guarani, and Aymara are also spoken.
The continent is famous for its vibrant festivals and traditions, including Carnival in Brazil, tango music and dance in Argentina, and the Andean festivals of Peru and Bolivia. South American cuisine is diverse, with staple foods such as maize, potatoes, beans, and various meats. Each country has its own unique culinary traditions, influenced by indigenous ingredients and cooking techniques.
