The United Nations (UN) is an international organization established in the mid-1940s following the end of World War II. It is considered the second multilateral organization founded in the 20th century, after the League of Nations, in terms of scope and membership. Its headquarters are located in New York City, with regional offices in various countries. The UN was created to save succeeding generations from the scourges of war, reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, foster conditions under which justice and adherence to international law can be maintained, and to develop friendly relations among nations based on the principles of equal rights and self-determination of peoples. Additionally, it aims to achieve global cooperation in solving economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian problems. Despite its noble goals, the UN has been influenced by political and international changes, particularly during the Cold War era between the United States and the Soviet Union (now Russia), and it has faced increased burdens following the end of colonialism in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. Today, it faces major challenges in resolving conflicts between states and directing humanitarian aid to areas facing civil wars, disasters, and epidemics.
History of the United Nations
Despite the challenges faced by the League of Nations in mediating conflicts and ensuring international peace and security before World War II, the major Allied powers during the war agreed to establish a new global organization to help manage international affairs. This agreement was formally outlined for the first time when U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter in August 1941. The term “United Nations” was originally used to refer to the countries allied against Germany, Italy, and Japan. On January 1, 1942, 26 nations signed the Declaration by United Nations, which defined the war aims of the Allied forces. The United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union took the lead in establishing the new organization’s structure, decision-making framework, and functions. Initially, the three major powers and their leaders—Roosevelt, Churchill, and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin—faced obstacles due to disagreements that indicated the onset of the Cold War. The Soviet Union sought individual membership and voting rights for its constituent republics, while Britain sought assurances that its colonies would not come under UN control. Additionally, there was disagreement over the voting system to be adopted in the Security Council, a dispute famously known as the “veto problem.”
The first major step towards forming the UN was the Dumbarton Oaks Conference, held between August 21 and October 7, 1944. This meeting of diplomatic experts from the three major powers, along with China, was known as the “Four Powers” and took place at a property in Washington, D.C. Although the four countries agreed on the general purpose, structure, and function of the new global organization, the conference concluded amidst ongoing disputes about membership and voting. At the Yalta Conference in February 1945, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin laid the groundwork for the Charter’s provisions defining the Security Council’s authority. They also reached a preliminary agreement on the number of Soviet republics to be granted independent membership in the UN. Finally, the three leaders agreed that the new organization would include a trusteeship system to replace the League of Nations’ mandate system.
The proposals from the Dumbarton Oaks Conference and the agreements reached at Yalta formed the basis for negotiations at the United Nations Conference, held in San Francisco from April 25, 1945, which produced the final UN Charter. The conference was attended by representatives from 50 countries across all geographic regions: 9 from Europe, 21 from the Americas, 7 from the Middle East, 2 from East Asia, 3 from Africa, as well as the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic (along with the Soviet Union itself), and 5 from the British Commonwealth. Poland, which was not present at the conference, was allowed to become a founding member. The veto power in the Security Council among the permanent members was confirmed, although any General Assembly member could raise issues for discussion. Disputes over colonial status, trusteeship distribution, regional and defensive arrangements, and the balance of power versus equality among states were resolved through compromises. The UN Charter was adopted unanimously and signed on June 26, 1945, and entered into force on October 24, 1945.
Organization and Administration of the United Nations
Principles and Membership
The UN’s principles are based on the equality of sovereignty among its members, the necessity of resolving disputes through peaceful means, and the prohibition of threats or use of force contrary to the purposes of the UN. Each member must assist the organization in any actions taken under the Charter and non-member states are expected to act in accordance with these principles to maintain international peace and security. Article 2 outlines a fundamental rule that the organization shall not intervene in matters within the domestic jurisdiction of any state, which has been a significant constraint on its operations, as the line between international and domestic jurisdiction has often been unclear.
New members are admitted to the UN based on the recommendation of the Security Council and a two-thirds majority vote of the General Assembly. However, the admission of new members has been controversial due to Cold War divisions between East and West, with the five permanent Security Council members (China, France, the Soviet Union or Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) sometimes creating serious obstacles to new admissions. By 1950, only 9 out of 31 countries seeking membership had been admitted. In 1955, a comprehensive deal led to an amendment by the Security Council, resulting in the admission of 16 new countries (4 communist states from Eastern Europe and 12 non-communist countries). The most contentious membership issue was the application of communist People’s Republic of China, which was blocked by the United States in every session from 1950 to 1971. Finally, in an effort to improve relations with the People’s Republic of China, it was admitted and the Republic of China (now Taiwan) was expelled with 76 votes for expulsion, 35 against, and 17 abstentions. As a result, the People’s Republic of China was granted membership and its permanent seat on the Security Council.
Debates also arose over “divided” states, including West Germany, East Germany, North and South Korea, and North and South Vietnam. Both German states were admitted as members in 1973 and their seats were reduced to one following reunification in October 1990. Vietnam was admitted in 1977 after the defeat of South Vietnam and reunification in 1975. Both Koreas were admitted separately in 1991. Following decolonization worldwide between 1955 and 1960, 40 new members were admitted, and by the late 1970s, there were about 150 UN members. Significant increases occurred after 1989-1990 with the independence of many former Soviet republics, and by the early 21st century, the UN had nearly 190 member states.
Main Organs
The UN has six main organs: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat.
General Assembly
The General Assembly is the only body where all UN members are represented and performs deliberative, supervisory, financial, and elective functions related to any matter within the scope of the UN Charter. Its primary role is to discuss issues and make recommendations, although it does not have the power to enforce its decisions or compel states to act. Other functions include admitting new members, electing members to the Economic and Social Council, and non-permanent members to the Security Council and the Trusteeship Council. It also supervises the activities of other UN organs that report to it, participates in electing judges to the International Court of Justice, and selects the Secretary-General. Decisions are usually made by a majority vote, but for important issues such as admitting new members, budgetary matters, and peace and security, a two-thirds majority is required.
The Assembly meets annually and in special sessions, electing a new president each year from among five regional groups of countries. During each regular session, the Assembly holds general debates where all members can participate and raise any international issue. Most of the Assembly’s work is delegated to six main committees: (1) Disarmament and International Security Committee; (2) Economic and Financial Committee; (3) Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee; (4) Special Political and Decolonization Committee; (5) Administrative and Budgetary Committee; and (6) Legal Committee.
Historically, the General Assembly has addressed issues ignored or avoided by other UN bodies, including decolonization, Namibia’s independence, apartheid in South Africa, terrorism, and AIDS. The number of resolutions adopted annually has risen to over 350, many of which are adopted without opposition. However, sharp disagreements have occurred on various issues, such as those related to the Cold War, the Arab-Israeli conflict, and human rights. The General Assembly has brought these major issues to public attention, compelling member governments to take stances and aiding in organizing bodies and conferences to address global problems. The large size of the General Assembly and the diversity of issues discussed have contributed to the formation of regional voting blocs, notably during the Cold War, when the Soviet Union and Eastern European countries formed a cohesive bloc against the Western bloc led by the United States and its allies. The admission of new countries in the Southern Hemisphere in the 1960s and 1970s and the end of Cold War tensions after 1989 led to the formation of blocs based on economic issues, dividing industrialized Northern Hemisphere countries from developing, less-industrialized Southern Hemisphere nations. Other issues have been incorporated into the North-South divide, including economic and political dominance, development, nuclear proliferation, and support for Israel.
Security Council
The Security Council is responsible for maintaining international peace and security, and has the authority to take action in situations that threaten peace or involve conflict. It consists of 15 members, including five permanent members (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and ten non-permanent members elected for two-year terms by the General Assembly. The five permanent members hold veto power, meaning that any substantive decision requires the approval of all five. The Council can impose sanctions, authorize the use of force, and make recommendations on international disputes. It is the only UN organ authorized to adopt legally binding resolutions, which are enforceable upon member states.
Economic and Social Council
The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) focuses on promoting international economic and social cooperation and development. It is responsible for coordinating the work of specialized agencies and other UN bodies, and for addressing economic, social, and environmental issues. The Council has 54 members elected by the General Assembly for three-year terms and meets annually in Geneva.
Trusteeship Council
The Trusteeship Council was established to oversee and administer trust territories that were transitioning to self-government or independence. The Trusteeship System was designed to be similar to the mandate system under the “League of Nations,” which stated that colonial territories taken from defeated countries in the war should not be annexed by the victorious powers but should be administered under international supervision until their future was determined. However, unlike the mandate system, the Trusteeship System called for considering petitions from the trust territories concerning their independence and required periodic international missions to those territories. As of 1945, there were still 12 mandates from the League of Nations: “Nauru, New Guinea, Rwanda-Urundi, Togoland, Cameroon (under French administration), Togoland and Cameroon (under British administration), Pacific Islands (Caroline, Marshall, Mariana), Western Samoa, South West Africa, Tanganyika, and Palestine.” All of these territories became trust territories except for South West Africa (now Namibia), which South Africa refused to include in the trusteeship system.
The Trusteeship Council, which met annually, consisted of countries administering the trust territories, permanent members of the Security Council who did not administer trust territories, and other members of the United Nations elected by the General Assembly. Each member had one vote, and decisions were made by a simple majority of those present. With the independence of Palau as the last trust territory in 1994, the Council ceased its operations and was no longer required to meet annually, though it could meet upon the decision of its President, or at the request of a majority of its members, the General Assembly, or the Security Council. Since 1994, new roles for the Council have been proposed, including managing global commons (such as the seabed and outer space) and serving as a forum for minorities and indigenous peoples.
International Court of Justice
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the UN, located in The Hague, Netherlands. It resolves legal disputes between states and provides advisory opinions on international legal issues referred to it by the UN General Assembly, Security Council, or other UN organs and specialized agencies. The Court consists of 15 judges elected for nine-year terms by the General Assembly and the Security Council.
Secretariat
The Secretariat is responsible for carrying out the day-to-day work of the UN, as directed by the General Assembly, the Security Council, and other organs. It is headed by the Secretary-General, who is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council. The Secretariat’s duties include organizing conferences, preparing reports, and coordinating activities among UN bodies.
United Nations Tasks
Maintaining International Peace and Security
The primary function of the United Nations is to maintain international peace and security. Chapter VI of the UN Charter outlines the peaceful resolution of disputes through the intervention of the Security Council via means such as negotiation, mediation, arbitration, and judicial decisions. The Security Council can investigate any dispute or situation to determine whether it poses a threat to international peace and security. At any stage of the conflict, the Council may recommend appropriate measures or methods for settlement. If parties fail to resolve the dispute peacefully, the Council may recommend terms for settlement, and if these efforts fail, Chapter VII of the Charter empowers the Security Council to take coercive measures ranging from diplomatic and economic sanctions to military action in cases where peaceful resolution attempts have failed. Such measures were rarely applied during the Cold War due to tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. In the post-Cold War era, calls to the UN for peacekeeping and related activities increased significantly, addressing new threats to international peace and security, including AIDS and international terrorism.
Despite the Security Council’s central role, the UN Charter also provides for the involvement of the General Assembly and non-member states in security matters. Any country, whether a UN member or not, can draw the attention of the Security Council or the General Assembly to any dispute or situation that threatens international peace and security. The Charter allows the General Assembly to discuss matters related to maintaining international peace and security and to make recommendations to the concerned states or the Security Council, or both. However, this mandate is restricted by a provision stating that while the Security Council is addressing a dispute or situation, the General Assembly cannot make recommendations regarding that dispute or situation unless requested by the Security Council. Consequently, the General Assembly’s role is secondary as Security Council decisions are binding on all members, whereas the General Assembly can only make recommendations.
Peacekeeping, Peacemaking, and Peacebuilding
International armed forces were first deployed in 1948 to monitor ceasefires in Kashmir and Palestine. Although these forces are not specifically mentioned in the UN Charter, their use as a buffer between warring parties awaiting withdrawal and negotiations is known as peacekeeping. This practice was formalized in 1956 during the Suez Crisis involving Egypt, Israel, France, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Despite being designed to be peaceful, these forces include military personnel from multiple countries and operate under the authority of the UN Security Council. In 1988, the UN peacekeeping forces were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
During the Cold War, the so-called first-generation or “classic” peacekeeping operations were employed in conflicts in the Middle East, Africa, and post-colonial disputes in Asia between 1948 and 1988. The UN conducted 13 peacekeeping missions, generally involving lightly armed forces from neutral non-permanent Security Council members, often from Canada, Sweden, Norway, Finland, India, Ireland, and Italy. These “blue helmets” were allowed to use force only in self-defense. With the end of the Cold War, peacekeeping challenges became more complex. To address situations where internal systems had collapsed and civilians were suffering, the “second-generation” peacekeeping operations were developed to achieve multiple political and social objectives. Unlike first-generation peacekeeping, second-generation missions often include civilian experts and relief specialists alongside military personnel. Additionally, troops in some second-generation missions are authorized to use force for reasons other than self-defense, leading to significant debate over their use.
During the 1990s, second-generation peacekeeping missions were carried out in Cambodia (1991-1993), the former Yugoslavia (1992-1995), and Somalia (1992-1995), among other places, involving troops from both permanent Security Council members and developed and developing countries like Australia, Pakistan, Ghana, Nigeria, Fiji, and India in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Security Council established safe areas to protect Muslim populations from Serbian attacks and authorized UN forces to defend these areas with force. Between 1988 and 2000, over 30 peacekeeping operations were authorized, peaking in 1993 with more than 80,000 peacekeepers from 77 countries deployed worldwide. In the early 21st century, UN spending on peacekeeping operations exceeded $2 billion annually.
In addition to traditional peacekeeping and preventive diplomacy, post-Cold War mandates have significantly expanded to include peacemaking and peacebuilding. For example, since 1990, UN forces have overseen elections in many parts of the world, including Nicaragua, Eritrea, and Cambodia, facilitated peace negotiations in El Salvador, Angola, and Western Sahara, and distributed food in Somalia. The presence of UN forces during the violent breakup of Yugoslavia renewed discussions on the role of UN forces in refugee resettlement. In 1992, the UN established the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) to provide administrative and technical support to political and humanitarian missions and coordinate all mine action activities under UN auspices.
Sanctions and Military Action
By signing the Charter, all UN members agree to place their armed forces and facilities at the disposal of the Security Council to enforce military sanctions against aggressors or peacebreakers. However, during the Cold War, no agreements were made to effectuate this measure, and the possibility of establishing permanent UN forces was revived after the Cold War.
During the Cold War, Chapter VII of the UN Charter was invoked only twice with support from all five permanent Security Council members—against Southern Rhodesia in 1966 and South Africa in 1977. After the outbreak of fighting between North and South Korea in June 1950, the United States secured a Security Council resolution authorizing the use of force to support its ally, South Korea, and repel North Korean troops, as the Soviet Union was boycotting Security Council sessions over the refusal to seat the People’s Republic of China, resulting in no veto against the US action. Consequently, a multinational force led by the United States fought under the UN banner until a ceasefire was reached on July 27, 1953.
The Security Council again voted to use UN armed forces to repel Iraq after its invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, following condemnation of the aggression and the imposition of economic sanctions on Iraq. The Council authorized member states to use all necessary means to restore peace and security to Kuwait. The Gulf War lasted six weeks until Iraq agreed to comply with UN resolutions and withdraw. The UN continued to monitor Iraq’s compliance with its resolutions, including demands for the removal of weapons of mass destruction. Accordingly, the Security Council established a special UN mission to inspect and verify Iraq’s compliance with ceasefire terms, although the United States continued to bomb Iraqi weapons facilities intermittently, citing Iraqi violations of no-fly zones and targeting of US military aircraft by Iraqi radar, complicating inspection efforts.
To assess the UN’s expanded role in ensuring international peace and security through dispute resolution, peacekeeping, and enforcement measures, a comprehensive review of UN peace operations was conducted. A report issued in 2000 summarized the need to enhance the UN’s capacity to undertake a range of tasks, recommending that the UN maintain a standby brigade of 5,000 troops ready for deployment within 30 to 90 days and equip the UN headquarters with trained military professionals capable of utilizing advanced information technology and operational planning, along with a team of political, developmental, and human rights experts.
Arms Control and Disarmament
The founders of the United Nations hoped that maintaining international peace and security would lead to the control and eventual reduction of armaments. Therefore, the Charter authorizes the General Assembly to consider disarmament principles and make recommendations to member states and the Security Council. The Charter also assigns the Security Council responsibility for formulating plans for arms limitation and disarmament. Although the goal of disarmament has proven elusive, the UN has facilitated negotiations on several multilateral arms control treaties.
Due to the massive destructive power achieved with the development and use of atomic bombs during World War II, the General Assembly established the Atomic Energy Commission in 1946 to urgently address atomic energy control and arms limitation. The United States promoted the Baruch Plan, which proposed the removal of existing atomic bomb stockpiles only after establishing an international control system and banning Security Council vetoes on committee decisions. The Soviet Union, which proposed the Gromyko Plan, insisted on the destruction of stockpiles before agreeing to international oversight. The conflicting positions of the two superpowers prevented an agreement on international control over nuclear weapons and energy.
In 1947, the Security Council organized the Conventional Arms Committee to address non-weapon of mass destruction arms, but progress was stalled by disagreements between the Soviet Union and Western powers. Consequently, the General Assembly voted in 1952 to replace both committees with a new Disarmament Commission comprising Security Council members and Canada. This commission was tasked with drafting proposals to regulate and limit the reduction of all armed forces and armaments, eliminate all weapons of mass destruction, ensure international oversight, and use atomic energy for peaceful purposes only. After five years of active effort and limited progress, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established in 1957 to promote peaceful uses of atomic energy. In 1961, the General Assembly adopted a resolution declaring that the use of nuclear or thermonuclear weapons was contrary to international law, the UN Charter, and humanitarian laws. Two years later, on August 5, 1963, the Partial Test Ban Treaty was signed by the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States, banning nuclear tests or explosions in the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater. The treaty was later signed by over 150 countries. In 1966, the General Assembly unanimously approved a treaty banning the placement of weapons of mass destruction in orbit, on the Moon, or other celestial bodies, recognizing space’s use for peaceful purposes only.
In June 1968, the council ratified the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), which prohibits the spread of nuclear weapons from nuclear to non-nuclear states and promotes cooperation for peaceful nuclear energy applications. The NPT remains one of the most important arms control agreements, signed by over 190 states and extended indefinitely in 1995. The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), signed in 1972, bans the development, production, and acquisition of biological and toxin weapons, and has been signed by over 180 states. The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), effective from April 1997, aims to eliminate chemical weapons, oversee the destruction of existing stockpiles, and enforce compliance among state parties, with more than 190 states signing.
The UN disarmament efforts and treaties signify a long-standing international commitment to controlling and reducing the proliferation of weapons, although achieving complete disarmament remains a complex and ongoing challenge.
